Everything below concerns GW501516. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2026-02-15. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Sporting authorities added GW501516 to prohibited lists after it appeared in athlete samples and online markets. The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a hormone and metabolic modulator, and its use can lead to an anti-doping rule violation. Some early laboratory work suggested effects on fatty acid oxidation and endurance-related metabolism in animals, but those findings do not establish safe or effective use in people. Reports of adverse events in humans are scarce and often anecdotal, which complicates risk assessment.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound first described in the 1990s as a selective agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. It was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it has not been approved as a medicine in the United States, Europe, or other major jurisdictions. Retail products labeled as cardarine are generally research chemicals or supplements, not pharmaceutical formulations. Because human safety and efficacy data remain limited, regulatory agencies treat it as an unapproved substance rather than a therapeutic product.
Laboratory detection of GW501516 commonly uses liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The method can identify the parent compound or its metabolites in urine and blood after sample cleanup. Protein precipitation, solid-phase extraction, or enzymatic hydrolysis may precede analysis, depending on the matrix. Reference standards are required for accurate quantification and confirmation. Because the compound is not approved, testing often occurs in anti-doping, forensic, or research settings rather than routine clinical care. Results are reported with limits of detection and quantification.
Stability of GW501516 depends on form, temperature, light exposure, and moisture. Solid reference material is typically stored frozen or refrigerated in a desiccator and protected from light. Solutions in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide are often kept frozen in aliquots to reduce freeze-thaw cycling. Aqueous solubility is low, so aqueous stock solutions can be difficult to prepare without cosolvents. Degradation may appear as changes in chromatographic purity or mass spectral signal. Stability studies are needed to establish shelf life for any specific preparation.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| IUPAC name | {4-[({4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazol-5-yl}methyl)sulfanyl]phenoxy}acetic acid | Systematic name for GW501516 |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the parent compound |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Includes carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
| Molecular weight | 453.5 g/mol | Approximate value for the neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical description for purified laboratory material |
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
Published studies have examined GW501516 in animal models of obesity, insulin resistance, and exercise endurance. Early human trials reportedly ended, and development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in some rodent studies. Regulatory agencies have not approved cardarine for any medical use. Its availability through non-pharmaceutical channels raises questions about identity, purity, and legal status that are separate from its laboratory pharmacology. Those questions are often addressed through analytical testing rather than assumptions about product labels.
Cardarine is explicitly prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency under the class of PPARδ agonists. Its presence in urine or blood samples can be detected using mass spectrometry-based methods, often liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Athletes who test positive may face sanctions, including bans from competition. The compound is also regulated as a prescription-only or unapproved drug in many countries. Enforcement varies by jurisdiction, and some regions treat it as a controlled substance. Online sales may occur despite these restrictions, creating quality and legal risks.
Laboratory detection of cardarine typically involves sample preparation followed by chromatographic separation and mass spectrometric identification. Urine is the most common matrix for anti-doping tests, though blood and hair have also been explored. Methods can target the parent compound or its metabolites, depending on the expected window of detection. Reference standards are required for accurate quantification. Matrix effects and dilution can influence results, so laboratories use internal standards and validation protocols. The exact detection window varies with dose, route, and individual metabolism.
Detection of GW501516 in biological samples generally relies on liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is a common matrix in anti-doping analysis, while blood or plasma may be used in research settings. Sample preparation can involve enzymatic hydrolysis, protein precipitation, or solid-phase extraction before instrumental analysis. Because the compound undergoes metabolism, assays may target the parent molecule, one or more metabolites, or both. Detection windows are not fixed; they depend on factors such as dose, route, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Reference standards are required for accurate identification and quantification.
Handling and quality assessment of cardarine reference material follow general laboratory practices for poorly characterized compounds. It typically appears as a white to off-white powder and is sparingly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide and ethanol. Storage recommendations usually specify a cool, dry, dark place, with long-term storage at low temperature and desiccation. Purity may be checked by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, while identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. No pharmacopeial monograph exists, so reported purity and stability depend on the supplier’s methods.
A persistent misconception is that cardarine is a fat-burning drug or a safe alternative to anabolic steroids. No approved therapeutic product exists, and human safety data are limited. The tumor findings in rodents remain a central concern in scientific reviews. Products sold online may contain inaccurate labels, impurities, or different compounds entirely, which complicates any assessment of effects. Independent testing of such products has reported frequent mislabeling. For these reasons, discussions in the literature emphasize risks and unknowns rather than benefits.
Cardarine is not approved for human therapeutic use in any major jurisdiction. It appears on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List as a PPARδ agonist within the hormone and metabolic modulators category. Sports organizations test for it because it has been detected in athlete samples and seized products. Regulatory actions against marketed research chemical versions have occurred in several countries, though enforcement varies. Availability through unregulated channels complicates oversight.
Analytical laboratories typically identify cardarine and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is a common matrix in anti-doping testing, while blood and tissue may be used in research settings. Detection windows depend on the assay, the sample matrix, and the compound's metabolism. Because cardarine is extensively metabolized, laboratories often target specific metabolites to improve sensitivity and confirmation. Reference standards are required for reliable quantification. Method validation includes checks for selectivity, linearity, and carryover.
François Vandenesch; Timothy S Naimi; Mark Enright; et al. (2003). "Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes: worldwide emergence". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 9 (8): 978–984. doi:10.3201/eid0908.030089. PMC 3020611. PMID 12967497. Wikidata Q24598936. Cameron Burton; Emma Best; Matthew Broom; Helen Heffernan; Simon Briggs; Rachel Webb (2023). "Pediatric Invasive Meningococcal Disease, Auckland, New Zealand (Aotearoa), 2004–2020". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 29 (4): 686–695. doi:10.3201/eid2904.221397. PMID 36957984. Wikidata Q130355931. Deborah A Williamson; Hanna E. Sidjabat; Joshua T Freeman; et al. (2012). "Identification and molecular characterisation of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase-1 (NDM-1)- and NDM-6-producing Enterobacteriaceae from New Zealand hospitals". International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 39 (6): 529–533. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2012.02.017. PMID 22526013. Wikidata Q48050341. Joshua T Freeman; Stephen J McBride; Helen Heffernan; Tracy Bathgate; Chris Pope; Roderick B Ellis-Pegler (2008). "Community-onset genitourinary tract infection due to CTX-M-15-Producing Escherichia coli among travelers to the Indian subcontinent in New Zealand". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 47 (5): 689–692. doi:10.1086/590941. PMID 18665816. Wikidata Q45138244. Rajan P Adhikari; Gregory M Cook; Iain Lamont; Selwyn Lang; Helen Heffernan; John M B Smith (2002). "Phenotypic and molecular characterization of community occurring, Western Samoan phage pattern methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus".
SeV has been known to the research community since the late 1950s and has been widely used to create numerous variants of genetically engineered constructs, including vectors for transgene delivery. Creation of SeV genetic constructs is easier compared to other viruses, many SeV genes have a transcriptional initiation and termination signals. Therefore, constructing a recombinant virus is straightforward; the foreign gene can be introduced into the viral genome by replacing or adding viral protein expressing gene(s). SeV can include a foreign gene or even multiple genes of large size. It has been demonstrated that a gene of more than 3 kb can be inserted and expressed in SeV. Due to exclusively cytoplasmic replication, the virus does not carry the risk of genetic integration into the host genomes, which is a problem for many other viral vectors. The genome of SeV as genomes of other non segmented negative-stranded RNA viruses has a low rate of homologous recombination and evolves comparatively slowly. Multiple reasons for this genomic stability exist: (1) the genome is nonsegmented, therefore cannot undergo genetic reassortment, (2) each protein and each amino acid has an important function. Therefore, any new genetic insertion, substitution or deletion would lead to a decrease or total loss of function that would in turn cause the new virus variant to be less viable. (3) Sendai virus belongs to a category of viruses that are governed by the "rule of six". SeV genome as genomes of other paramyxoviruses mainly include six genes, which encode for six major proteins.
In 2010, Medpace acquired the Minneapolis medical-device consultancy Symbios and Germany's Medical Consulting Dr. Schlichtiger GmbH. In 2012 they acquired MediTech BV, a medical device consultancy based in the Netherlands.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
When initially discovered, some scientists proposed that Osedax was a whale-bone specialist, a notion later disproven by the discovery of Osedax on a variety of skeletal substrates including bone fragments, teleost bones, shark teeth, reptile and bird skeletons, pinniped bones, experimentally placed cow bones, and even human remains. Multiple species of Osedax can co-exist in close proximity, even on the same bone. Osedax and their borings enhance local biodiversity by dissolving the tough external cortical bone and tunneling through their internal layers, increasing structural complexity and providing new regions for microfauna to colonize. As such, Osedax are considered ecosystem engineers. However, these borings compromise the structural integrity of the bones, causing them to collapse after extensive boring, rendering these new habitats temporary. The role of Osedax in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains is important to marine vertebrate taphonomy.
=== Pseudovitamins and antivitamins === Pseudovitamin B12 refers to compounds that are corrinoids with a structure similar to the vitamin, but without vitamin activity. Pseudovitamin B12 is the majority corrinoid in spirulina, an algal dietary supplement sometimes erroneously claimed as having this vitamin activity. Antivitamin B12 compounds (often synthetic B12 analogues) not only have no vitamin action, but also actively interfere with the activity of true vitamin B12. The design of these compounds mainly involves the replacement of the metal ion with rhodium, nickel, or zinc, or may have an inactive ligand attached, such as 4-ethylphenyl. These compounds have the potential for use in analyzing B12 pathways or even attacking B12-dependent pathogens.
The particle is modeled by either an electric dipole parallel to the electric field or a pair of crossed electric and magnetic dipoles parallel to the electric and magnetic fields, respectively, of the applied wave. These dipoles are the leading terms in the multipole series. They are the only existing ones for a homogeneous sphere, whose polarizability can be easily obtained from the Mie scattering coefficients. In general, this procedure is known as the "point-dipole approximation", which is a good approximation for metamaterials consisting of composites of electrically small spheres. Merits of these methods include low calculation cost and mathematical simplicity. Three conceptions- negative-index medium, non-reflecting crystal and superlens are foundations of the metamaterial theory. Other first principles techniques for analyzing triply-periodic electromagnetic media may be found in Computing photonic band structure
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Environmental factors == Living in an environment with more green spaces is associated with higher well-being, partly due to the beneficial effects on psychological relaxation, stress alleviation, increased physical activity, and reduced exposure to air pollutants and noise, among others. According to the latest systematic review of the economic literature on life satisfaction, pollution is bad for one's well-being. Exposure to outdoor air pollution and chimney smoke fireplaces causes dementia and other-health risks. Climate change mitigation measures have mostly positive direct effects on human well-being.
== Economic effects == Scotland's identity and heritage are deeply intertwined with Scotch whisky, a cornerstone of the country's economy exported to nearly 180 markets. The Scotch Whisky Association estimated that Scotland's whisky industry supported 40,000 jobs and accounted for £4.37 billion in exports in 2017. Of that total, single malt Scotch accounted for £1.17 billion in exports, a 14% increase over 2016. In 2022, its exports were valued at over £6 billion for the first time. The industry's contribution to the economy of the UK was estimated as £5.5 billion in 2018; the industry provided £3.8 billion in direct GVA (gross value added) to Scotland. Whisky tourism has also become significant and accounts for £68.3 million per year. One factor negatively affected sales, an extra 3.9% duty on spirits imposed by the UK in 2017. (The effect of the 25% increase in tariffs imposed by the U.S. in October 2019 would not be apparent until 2020.) Nonetheless, by year-end 2017, exports had reached a record-breaking amount. In November 2019, the Association announced that the government of the UK had agreed to consider revising the alcohol taxation system, hopefully producing a new plan that was simplified and "fairer". Exports in 2018 again increased 7.8% by value, and 3.6% in the number of bottles, in spite of the duty imposed in 2017; exports grew to a record level, £4.7 billion. The US imported Scotch whisky with a value of just over £1 billion while the European Union was the second-largest importer, taking 30% of global value.
== Single-player mods == Aperture Tag - A modification based on Portal 2 that recreates the essence of the game Tag: The Power of Paint, the inspiration for the various gels used in Portal 2. Instead of a portal gun, the player solves puzzles using a mix of these gels that they can spray onto surfaces with a tool they carry. Black Mesa - A third-party recreation of Half-Life (1998) that was made in response to the release of Half-Life: Source (2004), a port of the original game to the Source engine. Black Mesa originally released as a free mod in September 2012, and later had a full commercial release on Steam in March 2020. Coastline to Atmosphere - A mod set in the Half-Life 2 universe, following Gordon Freeman after the events of Half-Life 2. Dear Esther - An experimental "ghost story" created as a research project at the University of Portsmouth; initially released as a free modification in 2008, a longer commercial version was developed and released in 2012. Entropy: Zero - A Half-Life 2 modification developed by Breadman set before the base game's story in which a Combine Civil Protection officer, named "Bad Cop", becomes stranded in City 10. Entropy: Zero - Uprising - A mod of Entropy: Zero developed by Employee8 and Filipad that takes place during the uprising in Half-Life 2. Entropy: Zero 2 - A sequel to Entropy: Zero. Set post-Half-Life 2, its story follows Bad Cop, who has been promoted to "Elite" status, as he works to capture Dr. Judith Mossman, the former assistant of Earth's Administrator.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.
It is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a hormone and metabolic modulator. Athletes who test positive for GW501516 can face sanctions, including suspensions and loss of results.
Cardarine is a common or trade-style name, while GW501516 is the research code for the same chemical entity. Some sources also use Endurobol or GSK-516. The names refer to the same compound, not distinct drugs.
LC-MS/MS is common, often after sample cleanup. The assay targets GW501516 or its metabolites.