If you have been reading about Cardarine and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-01-07. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound first described in the 1990s as a selective agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. It was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it has not been approved as a medicine in the United States, Europe, or other major jurisdictions. Retail products labeled as cardarine are generally research chemicals or supplements, not pharmaceutical formulations. Because human safety and efficacy data remain limited, regulatory agencies treat it as an unapproved substance rather than a therapeutic product.
Sporting authorities added GW501516 to prohibited lists after it appeared in athlete samples and online markets. The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a hormone and metabolic modulator, and its use can lead to an anti-doping rule violation. Some early laboratory work suggested effects on fatty acid oxidation and endurance-related metabolism in animals, but those findings do not establish safe or effective use in people. Reports of adverse events in humans are scarce and often anecdotal, which complicates risk assessment.
Clinical development stopped after rodent studies showed tumors at multiple sites. Whether those findings predict human cancer risk remains an open question, but they led sponsors to discontinue programs. Human safety data are limited to small, short-term studies that were not designed to assess cancer risk. Reported effects in those studies included changes in blood lipids, but the evidence is insufficient for medical use. Long-term consequences of nonmedical use are not well characterized. Questions about dose, duration, and individual susceptibility remain unresolved.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| IUPAC name | {4-[({4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazol-5-yl}methyl)sulfanyl]phenoxy}acetic acid | Systematic name for GW501516 |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the parent compound |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Includes carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
| Molecular weight | 453.5 g/mol | Approximate value for the neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical description for purified laboratory material |
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
In the fitness and bodybuilding literature, cardarine is frequently discussed as an endurance agent or fat-loss compound, although such claims are not supported by robust clinical evidence. Online descriptions often mix animal data, user anecdotes, and marketing language. Researchers who study PPARδ agonists distinguish between receptor activation in controlled experiments and unsupervised use of unverified products. The latter introduces unknown purity, dose, and interactions, making reported experiences difficult to interpret scientifically.
GW501516 acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in transcription of genes related to lipid handling and energy use. Activation of PPARδ can shift skeletal muscle toward greater fatty acid oxidation in animal models, which is one reason it drew interest for metabolic disease and exercise research. The exact downstream effects depend on tissue, species, dose, and duration. Human data are sparse, so many proposed benefits remain hypotheses rather than established clinical outcomes.
=== Vertebrates === In birds, the trachea runs from the pharynx to the syrinx, from which the primary bronchi diverge. Swans have an unusually elongated trachea, part of which is coiled beneath the sternum; this may act as a resonator to amplify sound. In some birds, the tracheal rings are complete, and may even be ossified. In amphibians, the trachea is normally extremely short, and leads directly into the lungs, without clear primary bronchi. A longer trachea is, however, found in some long-necked salamanders, and in caecilians. While there are irregular cartilagenous nodules on the amphibian trachea, these do not form the rings found in amniotes. The only vertebrates to have lungs, but no trachea, are the lungfish and the Polypterus, in which the lungs arise directly from the pharynx.
==== Use as an inhaled agitation medication ==== Loxapine has a relatively strong safety profile compared to similar antipsychotic drugs, such as quetiapine, olanzapine, and clozapine, with a relatively lower incidence of metabolic side-effects (although higher extrapyramial side-effects). Given its strong safety profile and speed/efficacy when given intramuscularly for acute agitation, an inhaled version of the drug (Adasuve) has been developed to be applied nasally for agitated patients needing to be rapidly de-escalated.
== Reform and replacement == The Local Transport Act 2008 reconstituted it as the Greater Manchester Integrated Transport Authority. The integrated transport authority was replaced by Transport for Greater Manchester in 2011, which is accountable to the Greater Manchester Combined Authority.
Doxycycline, like other tetracycline antibiotics, is bacteriostatic. The drug works by preventing bacteria from reproducing, inhibiting protein synthesis. Doxycycline is highly lipophilic, so it can easily enter cells, meaning the drug is readily absorbed and has a large volume of distribution (it distributes widely throughout body tissues rather than remaining in the blood). The drug can also be re-absorbed in the renal tubules and gastrointestinal tract due to its high lipophilicity, giving it a long elimination half-life. In patients with kidney failure, doxycycline does not accumulate to toxic levels because the body compensates by increasing excretion through the feces. Doxycycline-metal ion complexes are unstable in acidic conditions, therefore more doxycycline enters the duodenum for absorption than older tetracycline compounds such as tetracycline and oxytetracycline. In addition, food has less effect on the absorption of doxycycline than on other tetracyclines, with doxycycline serum concentrations being reduced by about 20% by test meals compared with 50% for tetracycline.
In the case of prolactin and leptin, there is evidence of active uptake at the choroid plexus from the blood into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Some pituitary hormones have a negative feedback influence upon hypothalamic secretion; for example, growth hormone feeds back on the hypothalamus, but how it enters the brain is not clear. There is also evidence for central actions of prolactin. Findings have suggested that thyroid hormone (T4) is taken up by the hypothalamic glial cells in the infundibular nucleus/ median eminence, and that it is here converted into T3 by the type 2 deiodinase (D2). Subsequent to this, T3 is transported into the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)-producing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus. Thyroid hormone receptors have been found in these neurons, indicating that they are indeed sensitive to T3 stimuli. In addition, these neurons expressed MCT8, a thyroid hormone transporter, supporting the theory that T3 is transported into them. T3 could then bind to the thyroid hormone receptor in these neurons and affect the production of thyrotropin-releasing hormone, thereby regulating thyroid hormone production. The hypothalamus functions as a type of thermostat for the body. It sets a desired body temperature, and stimulates either heat production and retention to raise the blood temperature to a higher setting or sweating and vasodilation to cool the blood to a lower temperature. All fevers result from a raised setting in the hypothalamus; elevated body temperatures due to any other cause are classified as hyperthermia.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
is a physical property and defined as the optical rotation α at a path length l of 1 dm, a concentration c of 10 g/L, a temperature T (usually 20 °C) and a light wavelength λ (usually sodium D line at 589.3 nm):
A mammary gland is a specific type of apocrine gland specialized for manufacture of colostrum (first milk) when giving birth. Mammary glands can be identified as apocrine because they exhibit striking "decapitation" secretion. Many sources assert that mammary glands are modified sweat glands.
They feature multiply charged ions alkali metal adducts and non covalent complexes that originate from the condensed phase of the sample/solvent interaction. DESI is revealed to have a more gentle ionization condition that leads to a more pronounced tendency for metal adduct formation and a lower specific charging of secondary droplets.
Cohen (1952), former co-owner of the Boston Celtics and the Brooklyn Nets; former chairman and CEO of the Madison Square Garden Corporation Lawrence K. Grossman (1952), president of PBS 1976–1984 and NBC News 1985–1988 Richard Wald (1952), former president of NBC News 1973–1977 Robert A. Belfer (1955), oilman and philanthropist, namesake of the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University Thomas Ludlow Chrystie II (1955), first chief financial officer of Merrill Lynch & Company and creator of the Cash Management Account Alfred Lerner (1955), chairman of MBNA Bank and ex-owner of the Cleveland Browns Richard Ravitch (1955), chairman of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority and the Bowery Savings Bank Sid Sheinberg (1955), head of Universal Pictures Barry F. Sullivan (1955), chairman and CEO of First Chicago Bank, deputy mayor of New York City under David Dinkins Edward Botwinick (1956), IT entrepreneur and inventor, co-founder of Timeplex Franklin A. Thomas (1956), former president of The Ford Foundation James R. Barker (1957), chairman of Interlake Steamship Company, former chairman and CEO of Moore-McCormack Peter L.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The post–Cold War era is a period of history that has been ongoing since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which began in 1988 and marked the end of the Cold War by 1991, thereby leaving the United States as the world's sole superpower. At the same time, Europe experienced the collapse of communism alongside the fall of the "Iron Curtain" between the American-aligned Western Bloc and the Soviet-aligned Eastern Bloc, which gradually embraced market economies. The establishment of the European Union (EU) in 1993 effectively reversed the continent's Cold War divide by absorbing most of Eastern Europe and integrating it with Western Europe over the course of three enlargements. Relative to the Cold War, the period is characterized by stabilization and disarmament. Both Russia (the Soviet Union's legal successor state) and the United States significantly reduced their nuclear weapons stockpiles, and most Eastern Bloc countries became democratic and were integrated into the global economy. In the first two decades of the post–Cold War era, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) underwent three enlargements and France re-integrated into the NATO command, while Russia founded the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) to replace the Warsaw Pact. More recently, China has become a rising power and has likewise consolidated a greater role on the international stage while building a strategic partnership with Russia, with both countries working in BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.
== Aquaculture == In aquaculture, microbubble aerators have been used to maintain elevated dissolved oxygen concentrations in fish and shrimp culture systems. Studies have reported improved fish growth performance, reduced stress, and altered microbial community composition in pond and recirculating aquaculture systems treated with microbubble or nanobubble aeration compared with conventional aeration.
Spread of cancer to the bone or spinal cord can lead to back pain. Bone is one of the most common sites of metastatic lesions. Patients typically have a history of malignancy. Common types of cancer that present with back pain include multiple myeloma, lymphoma, leukemia, spinal cord tumors, primary vertebral tumors and prostate cancer. Back pain is present in 29% of patients with systemic cancer. Unlike other causes of back pain that commonly affect the lumbar spine, the thoracic spine is most commonly affected. The pain can be associated with systemic symptoms such as weight loss, chills, fever, nausea and vomiting. Unlike other causes of back pain, neoplasm-associated back pain is constant, dull, poorly localized and worsens with rest. Metastasis to the bone also increases the risk of spinal-cord compression or vertebral fractures that require emergency surgical treatment.
In ambient ionization, ions are formed outside the mass spectrometer without sample preparation or separation. Ions can be formed by extraction into charged electrospray droplets, thermally desorbed and ionized by chemical ionization, or laser desorbed or ablated and post-ionized before they enter the mass spectrometer. Solid-liquid extraction based ambient ionization uses a charged spray to create a liquid film on the sample surface. Molecules on the surface are extracted into the solvent. The action of the primary droplets hitting the surface produces secondary droplets that are the source of ions for the mass spectrometer. Desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) creates charged droplets that are directed at a solid sample a few millimeters to a few centimeters away. The charged droplets pick up the sample through interaction with the surface and then form highly charged ions that can be sampled into a mass spectrometer. Plasma-based ambient ionization is based on an electrical discharge in a flowing gas that produces metastable atoms and molecules and reactive ions. Heat is often used to assist in the desorption of volatile species from the sample. Ions are formed by chemical ionization in the gas phase. A direct analysis in real time (DART) source operates by exposing the sample to a dry gas stream (typically helium or nitrogen) that contains long-lived electronically or vibronically excited neutral atoms or molecules (or "metastables"). Excited states are typically formed in the DART source by creating a glow discharge in a chamber through which the gas flows.
== Safety == Vacuum flasks are at risk of implosion hazard, and glass vessels under vacuum, in particular, may shatter unexpectedly. Chips, scratches or cracks can be a starting point for dangerous vessel failure, especially when the vessel temperature changes rapidly (when hot or cold liquid is added). Proper preparation of the Dewar vacuum flask by tempering prior to use is advised to maintain and optimize the functioning of the unit. Glass vacuum flasks are usually fitted into a metal base with the cylinder contained in or coated with mesh, aluminum or plastic to aid in handling, protect it from physical damage, and contain fragments should they break. In addition, cryogenic storage dewars are usually pressurized, and they may explode if pressure relief valves are not used. Thermal expansion has to be taken into account when engineering a vacuum flask. The outer and inner walls are exposed to different temperatures and will expand at different rates. The vacuum flask can rupture due to the differential in thermal expansion between the outer and inner walls. Expansion joints are commonly used in tubular vacuum flasks to avoid rupture and maintain vacuum integrity.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.
It is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a hormone and metabolic modulator. Athletes who test positive for GW501516 can face sanctions, including suspensions and loss of results.
Cardarine is a common or trade-style name, while GW501516 is the research code for the same chemical entity. Some sources also use Endurobol or GSK-516. The names refer to the same compound, not distinct drugs.
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.