A practical reference on preclinical models: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2025-12-21 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound first described in the 1990s as a selective agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. It was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it has not been approved as a medicine in the United States, Europe, or other major jurisdictions. Retail products labeled as cardarine are generally research chemicals or supplements, not pharmaceutical formulations. Because human safety and efficacy data remain limited, regulatory agencies treat it as an unapproved substance rather than a therapeutic product.
In the fitness and bodybuilding literature, cardarine is frequently discussed as an endurance agent or fat-loss compound, although such claims are not supported by robust clinical evidence. Online descriptions often mix animal data, user anecdotes, and marketing language. Researchers who study PPARδ agonists distinguish between receptor activation in controlled experiments and unsupervised use of unverified products. The latter introduces unknown purity, dose, and interactions, making reported experiences difficult to interpret scientifically.
GW501516 acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in transcription of genes related to lipid handling and energy use. Activation of PPARδ can shift skeletal muscle toward greater fatty acid oxidation in animal models, which is one reason it drew interest for metabolic disease and exercise research. The exact downstream effects depend on tissue, species, dose, and duration. Human data are sparse, so many proposed benefits remain hypotheses rather than established clinical outcomes.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| IUPAC name | {4-[({4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazol-5-yl}methyl)sulfanyl]phenoxy}acetic acid | Systematic name for GW501516 |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the parent compound |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Includes carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
| Molecular weight | 453.5 g/mol | Approximate value for the neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical description for purified laboratory material |
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
Published studies have examined GW501516 in animal models of obesity, insulin resistance, and exercise endurance. Early human trials reportedly ended, and development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in some rodent studies. Regulatory agencies have not approved cardarine for any medical use. Its availability through non-pharmaceutical channels raises questions about identity, purity, and legal status that are separate from its laboratory pharmacology. Those questions are often addressed through analytical testing rather than assumptions about product labels.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
Because cardarine is not an approved medicine, no pharmacopeial monograph defines its identity, purity, or storage requirements. Laboratories typically rely on in-house methods and reference standards when testing materials labeled as GW501516. Certificates of analysis may report purity and identity for a specific batch, but their scope varies and they do not guarantee safety or legal status. Independent verification can include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, and elemental analysis. The distinction between research chemical labeling and human use is significant because quality standards and oversight differ.
Cardarine can be detected in biological samples and product materials using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The method separates compounds by chromatography and identifies them by mass-to-charge transitions, allowing low-level detection in urine or blood. Sample preparation often involves enzymatic hydrolysis, solid-phase extraction, or protein precipitation. Certified reference materials and isotope-labeled internal standards improve quantification. Detection windows depend on metabolism, matrix, and assay sensitivity, so no single universal window applies.
Handling and quality assessment of cardarine reference material follow general laboratory practices for poorly characterized compounds. It typically appears as a white to off-white powder and is sparingly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide and ethanol. Storage recommendations usually specify a cool, dry, dark place, with long-term storage at low temperature and desiccation. Purity may be checked by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, while identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. No pharmacopeial monograph exists, so reported purity and stability depend on the supplier’s methods.
GW501516 acts as a selective agonist at PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in lipid handling and energy metabolism. Activation of PPARδ in preclinical models increases fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and exercise endurance in rodents. These effects have made the compound a subject of metabolic research and also a target for sport anti-doping rules. In humans, however, controlled studies are limited, and whether similar endurance or metabolic changes occur at tolerated exposures remains an open question. The receptor’s broad tissue distribution also means downstream effects may vary by organ and condition.
The compound is typically described as a laboratory compound rather than a therapeutic product. Published reports have explored its role in lipid disorders, insulin sensitivity, and exercise metabolism, yet no major drug regulator has approved it for medical use. Commercial samples sold under the cardarine name may vary in purity and identity. Analytical confirmation is therefore necessary when the material is discussed in scientific or regulatory contexts. Its classification as a prohibited substance in sport further shapes how it is studied and reported.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied for its effects on lipid and glucose metabolism. It functions as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, or PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression. The molecule is not a steroid, nor is it a selective androgen receptor modulator. It is also known in research and sports literature as GW-501516 and endurobol. Early laboratory work examined its metabolic activity in cell cultures and animal models.
Activation of PPARδ changes transcription of genes involved in fatty acid transport, mitochondrial function, and skeletal muscle fuel preference. In rodent studies, pharmacological PPARδ activation was associated with increased endurance and altered body composition. These findings generated interest in performance enhancement, but species differences and study designs limit direct extrapolation to humans. Small human trials were conducted in the 2000s and later discontinued. The extent to which cardarine produces similar metabolic or performance effects in people remains an open question.
== Use == The thomson has been used by some mass spectrometrists, for example Alexander Makarov—the inventor of the Orbitrap—in a scientific poster, and a 2015 presentation. Other uses of the thomson include papers, and (notably) one book. The journal Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry (in which the original article appeared) states that "the thomson (Th) may be used for such purposes as a unit of mass-to-charge ratio although it is not currently approved by IUPAP or IUPAC." Even so, the term has been called "controversial" by RCM's former editor-in-chief (in a review the Hoffman text cited above). The book, Mass Spectrometry Desk Reference, argues against the use of the thomson. However, the editor-in-chief of the Journal of the Mass Spectrometry Society of Japan has written an editorial in support of the thomson unit. The thomson is not an SI unit, nor has it been defined by IUPAC. Since 2013, the thomson is deprecated by IUPAC (Definitions of Terms Relating to Mass Spectrometry). Since 2014, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry regards the thomson as a "term that should be avoided in mass spectrometry publications".
The substance quickly penetrates the cornea and reaches the aqueous humour. It is reduced to dihydrolevobunolol, which is equally active, in the eye's tissues. The drug starts to lower intraocular pressure within an hour, reaches its maximum effect after two to six hours, and remains effective for up to 16 hours. It has an elimination half-life of six hours and is mainly excreted via the kidney.
=== December === 1 December – Michael Russell steps down as chairman of the Scottish National Party as he bids to become chairman of the Scottish Land Commission. 5 December – The Scottish Prison Service issues new guidelines on transgender prisoners. Trans women who have hurt or threatened women or girls will not be sent to a female prison unless there are "exceptional" circumstances. 6 December – The Court of Session in Edinburgh rejects a bid by the Scottish Government to prevent the publication of details of an inquiry into whether former First Minister Nicola Sturgeon broke the ministerial code over a meeting with Alex Salmond's aide in the aftermath of allegations against Salmon in 2021. 7 December – Conservative councillor Wendy Agnew resigns as chair of Aberdeenshire Council's Kincardine and Mearns area committee following comments made about gypsies during a council meeting in November. Agnew is also being investigated by the Ethical Standards Commissioner following a complaint about the comments. 8 December – The Court of Session in Edinburgh rules that the UK government acted lawfully by blocking the Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill from becoming law, and rejects the Scottish Government's appeal against the decision. 9 December – An earthquake measuring 2.1 magnitude is felt in parts of the Scottish Highlands.
=== Natural occurrence === Hawthorn flowers have a heavy, complicated scent, the distinctive part of which is triethylamine, which is also one of the first chemicals produced by a dead human body when it begins to decay. Due to the scent, it is considered unlucky in British culture to bring hawthorn into a house. Gangrene and semen are also said to possess a similar odour.
== History == Progeria was first described in 1886 by Jonathan Hutchinson. It was also described independently in 1897 by Hastings Gilford. The condition was later named Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome. Scientists are interested in progeria partly because it might reveal clues about the normal process of aging.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
3,4-Dimethoxyamphetamine (3,4-DMA), or simply dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA), is a psychedelic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine families. It is one of the dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA) series of positional isomers. The drug is also an analogue of other psychedelics like 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4,5-trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA), and mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine). It has been reported to produce psychedelic effects in humans but only entactogen-like effects without stimulant- or psychedelic-like effects in animals.
After the expression of the gene product, it may be necessary to purify the expressed protein; however, separating the protein of interest from the great majority of proteins of the host cell can be a protracted process. To make this purification process easier, a purification tag may be added to the cloned gene. This tag could be histidine (His) tag, other marker peptides, or a fusion partners such as glutathione S-transferase or maltose-binding protein. Some of these fusion partners may also help to increase the solubility of some expressed proteins. Other fusion proteins such as green fluorescent protein may act as a reporter gene for the identification of successful cloned genes, or they may be used to study protein expression in cellular imaging.
Hyperandrogenism affects 5–10% of women of reproductive age. Hyperandrogenism can affect both men and women but is more noticeable in women since elevated levels of androgens in women may facilitate virilization. Because hyperandrogenism is characterized by elevated male sex hormone levels, symptoms of hyperandrogenism in men are often negligible. Hyperandrogenism in women is typically diagnosed in late adolescence with a medical evaluation. The medical evaluation usually consists of a pelvic exam, observation of external symptoms, and a blood test measuring androgen levels. Symptoms may include the following:
=== EC 1.99.2 Oxygenases (now covered by EC 1.13) === EC 1.99.2.1: deleted, now EC 1.13.11.12, lipoxygenase EC 1.99.2.2: deleted, now EC 1.13.11.1, catechol 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.99.2.3: deleted, now EC 1.13.11.3, protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase EC 1.99.2.4: deleted, now EC 1.13.11.4, gentisate 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.99.2.5: deleted, now EC 1.13.11.5, homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.99.2.6: deleted, now EC 1.13.99.1, inositol oxygenase
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
19 January – The European Court of Human Rights announces that Ireland launched legal action against the United Kingdom on 17 January over the Northern Ireland Troubles (Legacy and Reconciliation) Act 2023. The UK government gives its backing to the Pet Abduction Bill, a private member's bill that makes it illegal to steal cats and dogs in England and Northern Ireland. 20 January – A speech to the Fabian Society conference by Shadow Foreign Secretary David Lammy is interrupted by pro-Palestinian protestors. 21 January – Scotland's First Minister, Humza Yousaf, tells the BBC's Sunday with Laura Kuenssberg he is willing to work with Sir Keir Starmer if he becomes prime minister after the next general election. 22 January – The House of Lords votes 214–171 in favour of an amendment to the Safety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Bill that calls for the delay of ratification of the bill until Rwanda improves its asylum procedures. The UK government rejects calls from Welsh MPs to add the Six Nations Championship to the list of guaranteed free-to-air sporting events on British television. 23 January – Following more air strikes against Houthi targets, Sunak tells Parliament the UK would not hesitate to launch further strikes if the rebel group continue to attack shipping targets in the Red Sea, but does not seek confrontation with them.
The chemistry of plutonium was found to resemble uranium after a few months of initial study. Early research was continued at the secret Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago. On August 20, 1942, a trace quantity of this element was isolated and measured for the first time. About 50 micrograms of plutonium-239 combined with uranium and fission products was produced and only about 1 microgram was isolated. This procedure enabled chemists to determine the new element's atomic weight. On December 2, 1942, on a racket court under the west grandstand at the University of Chicago's Stagg Field, researchers headed by Enrico Fermi achieved the first self-sustaining chain reaction in a graphite and uranium pile known as CP-1. Using theoretical information garnered from the operation of CP-1, DuPont constructed an air-cooled experimental production reactor, known as X-10, and a pilot chemical separation facility at Oak Ridge. The separation facility, using methods developed by Glenn T. Seaborg and a team of researchers at the Met Lab, removed plutonium from uranium irradiated in the X-10 reactor. Information from CP-1 was also useful to Met Lab scientists designing the water-cooled plutonium production reactors for Hanford. Construction at the site began in mid-1943. In November 1943 some plutonium trifluoride was reduced to create the first sample of plutonium metal: a few micrograms of metallic beads. Enough plutonium was produced to make it the first synthetically made element to be visible with the unaided eye.
Researchers learned to control the expression of transgenes, and were soon racing—in both academic and industrial contexts—to create organisms capable of expressing human genes for the production of human hormones. However, this was a more daunting task than molecular biologists had expected; developments between 1977 and 1980 showed that, due to the phenomena of split genes and splicing, higher organisms had a much more complex system of gene expression than the bacteria models of earlier studies. The first such race, for synthesizing human insulin, was won by Genentech. This marked the beginning of the biotech boom (and with it, the era of gene patents), with an unprecedented level of overlap between biology, industry, and law.
== External links == GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Maple Syrup Urine Disease Branched+Chain+Ketoacid+Dehydrogenase at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) EC 1.2.4.4 [1]
=== Modern usage === As part of standard TB chemotherapy, isoniazid is now typically administered alongside at least three other drugs—ethambutol, pyrazinamide, and rifampin—for six to nine months. Isoniazid is also included on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies isoniazid as critically important for human medicine.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.
It is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a hormone and metabolic modulator. Athletes who test positive for GW501516 can face sanctions, including suspensions and loss of results.
Cardarine is a common or trade-style name, while GW501516 is the research code for the same chemical entity. Some sources also use Endurobol or GSK-516. The names refer to the same compound, not distinct drugs.
It binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression related to fatty acid metabolism and energy balance. This mechanism has been studied mainly in animals and cell models, not established as a safe human therapy.